The Verbs in Ps 4:2

Introduction

The text of Ps 4:2 according to the Masoretic Text (MT) reads as follows:

בְּקָרְאִ֡י עֲנֵ֤נִי ׀ אֱלֹ֘הֵ֤י צִדְקִ֗י

בַּ֭צָּר הִרְחַ֣בְתָּ לִּ֑י

חָ֝נֵּ֗נִי וּשְׁמַ֥ע תְּפִלָּתִֽי׃

According to the MT, the verbs in the first and third lines are imperatives, while the verb in the second line is qatal (הִרְחַבְתָּ). Modern translations disagree on how to render this qatal verb. The translations below represent the two most common options: (1) past-tense indicative and (2) the so-called "precative qatal" (i.e., a qatal functioning like an imperative).

• Answer me when I call, O God of my righteousness! You have given me relief when I was in distress. Be gracious to me and hear my prayer! (ESV)
• Answer me when I call to you, my righteous God. Give me relief from my distress; have mercy on me and hear my prayer. (NIV)

Another option, represented by the Septuagint, is to vocalize the verb in v. 2a as a qatal indicative (instead of an imperative). The Septuagint also interprets the qatal verb in v. 2b as past-tense indicative.

• When I would call, the God of my righteousness listened to me. In affliction you gave me room. Have compassion on me, and listen to my prayer. (LXX, trans. NETS)

Some scholars take the Septuagint a step further and advocate vocalizing all of the verb forms in v. 2 as indicatives, including the verbs in v. 2c. E.g.,

• When I called, the God of my righteousness answered me. In the distress, you gave me relief. He was merciful to me and heard my prayer.

Argument Maps

The following argument maps will explore three views:

1. Imperative (v. 2a)—Indicative (v. 2b)—Imperatives (v. 2c)
2. Imperative (v. 2a)—Imperative (precative qatal) (v. 2b)—Imperatives (v. 2c)
3. Indicative (v. 2a)—Indicative (v. 2b)—Imperatives (v. 2c)
4. Indicative (v. 2a)—Indicative (v. 2b)—Indicatives (v. 2c)

Impv—Ind—Impv

Most of the modern European translations consulted read imperatives in v. 2a and v. 2c, with a past-tense indicative in v. 2b. E.g., "Answer me when I call, O God of my righteousness! You have given me relief when I was in distress. Be gracious to me and hear my prayer!" (ESV).

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[Impv—Ind—Impv]: The verbs in the first and third lines should be vocalized as imperatives ("answer... be merciful and hear"), and the verb in the second line should be interpreted as a past-tense indicative ("you gave room"). #dispreferred
 + <Vocalization tradition>: The MT vocalizes the verbs in the first and third lines as imperatives, and this interpretation is reflected in several ancient translations of the psalm.#dispreferred
  + [MT]: בְּקָרְאִ֡י עֲנֵ֤נִי ׀ אֱלֹ֘הֵ֤י צִדְקִ֗י בַּ֭צָּר הִרְחַ֣בְתָּ לִּ֑י חָ֝נֵּ֗נִי וּשְׁמַ֥ע תְּפִלָּתִֽי׃ #dispreferred
  + [Ancient translations]: Aquila: ἐπάκουσόν μου... δώρησαί μοι; Symmachus: ...ἐπάκουσόν μου; Quinta: ...ἐπάκουσόν μου; Jerome (iuxta Hebr.): exaudi me... dilatasti mihi... miserere mei et exaudi... #dispreferred
 + <Chiastic structure>: "The imperatives of this petition are chiastically related to one another in such a way that v. 2d (= "be merciful to me and hear my prayer") specifies the content of the rather generally formulated element of v. 2a: The 'calling' (קרא) is a “supplication” (תפלתי), and the answer for which the supplicant waits (ענני) is a demonstration of affection and grace (חנני). The imperatives are placed around two forms of address (v. 2bc). The first is formulated nominally (= "God of my righteousness", the second verbally (= "you gave me room in distress"). Both are predications in which the worshipper recalls experiences of salvation that he has had" (Zenger 1990, 388 :A:, own translation).#dispreferred
  + [Chiastic structure]: A. "When I call, answer me," B. "God of my righteousness." B. "You gave me room in distress." A. "Be merciful to me and hear my prayer."#dispreferred
 - <Jarring shift>: The shift from the imperative in the first line ("answer me!") to the past-tense indicative in the second line ("you gave me room") is jarring.
  <_ <Future tense>: The qatal verb הִרְחַבְתָּ should be interpreted as a future tense: "as תרחיב לי... a past in place of a future, as though it is already done" (Radak :C:). #dispreferred
  <_ <Asyndetic relative clause>: The second line is an asyndetic relative clause: "Answer me, God of my righteousness, \[you who\] gave me room..." (cf. LUT, BTX4, DHH94I; so Hupfeld 1855, 51 :C:; Perowne 1870, 123-124 :C:; Duhm 1899, 13 :C:; Muis, cited in Poole 1678, 508 :C:).#dispreferred
   - <Third-person agreement>: Asyndetic relative clauses typically exhibit third-person agreement (see, e.g., Isa 44:1) (see Miller-Naudé & Naudé 2024, 153-169), whereas the alleged relative clause in Ps 4:2 is second person.
    + [Isa 44:1]: "But now hear, O Jacob my servant, Israel whom I have chosen (בָּחַרְתִּי בוֹ)!" (Isa 44:1, ESV).
  <_ <Similar shifts>: Other passages in the Psalms have similar shifts from imperative to indicative, in which the psalmist grounds his request in YHWH's past action (e.g., Ps 3:8) (cf. Baethgen 1904, 9 :C:; Hossfeld and Zenger 1993, 61 :C:).#dispreferred
   + [Ps 3:8]: "Rise up, YHWH! Save me, my God! For you have struck all my enemies on the jaw; you have broken the teeth of wicked people" (Ps 3:8).#dispreferred
 - <Incoherence>: The imperatives "answer... be merciful and hear my prayer!" create an expectation that the psalmist is about to articulate some request to YHWH, but the rest of the psalm does not contain any request (cf. Goldingay 2006, 170 :A:; Weiser 1959, 81 :C:).

Impv—Impv—Impv

Some of the English translations consulted interpret the qatal verb in v.2b as a "precative qatal and translate it with the English imperative. Thus, according to this view, all of the verbs in v. 2 have imperatival force. E.g., "Answer me when I call to you, my righteous God. Give me relief from my distress; have mercy on me and hear my prayer" (NIV).

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[Impv—Impv—Impv]: The verbs in the first and third lines should be vocalized as imperatives ("answer... be merciful and hear"), and the verb in the second line should be interpreted as a precative qatal (a qatal with imperatival force) ("give me room!"). #dispreferred
 + <Expected literary context>: The qatal verb in v. 2b fits the profile of a precative qatal. Precative qatals are "invariably found alternating with the imperfect or the imperative" (Buttenwieser 1938, 21 :M:; cf. IBHS §30.5.4d :G:), and the verbs in the surrounding lines are imperatives. #dispreferred
  + [Precative qatal with imperatives]: E.g., Ps 22:22—"Rescue me (הוֹשִׁיעֵנִי) from the mouth of the lions, save me (עֲנִיתָנִי) from the horns of the wild oxen" (cited and translated in IBHS §30.5.4d :G:); cf. Ps 71:3—"Give the command (צִוִּיתָ) to save me" (NIV; cf. Fassberg 2019, §180 :G:); 1 Chr 17:27—"Now please bless (הוֹאַלְתָּ לְבָרֵךְ) my descendants forever" (CEV), parallel to 2 Sam 7:29, which has an imperative (הוֹאֵל וּבָרֵךְ).#dispreferred
 + <Parallelism>: "The parallelism of the opening two lines of the verse strongly indicates that הִרְחַבְתָּ should be understood as a precative perfect, parallel to עֲנֵנִי (impv.) in the previous line" (Craigie 1983, 78 :C:). #dispreferred
  + [Parallelism]: A. "When (בּ) I call," B. "answer me" / A. "In the distress" (בּ), B. "give me room." #dispreferred
 - <Coherence>: The surrounding imperatives "answer... be merciful and hear my prayer!" create an expectation that the psalmist is going to articulate some request to YHWH, but the rest of the psalm does not contain any request. Therefore, the request must be in v. 2b: "give me room!" (so Goldingay 2006, 170–171 :A:).
 - <Dubious category>: The notion that qatal can function as a precative perfect is "dubious" (Cook 2024, 182 :M:; cf. Robar 2020, 633 :A:). "In most of these instances it is also possible to postulate that one of the more typical senses of the qatal/perfect (e.g., present perfect) is involved" (BHRG §19.2.5.2 :G:).

Ind—Ind—Impv

The Septuagint interprets the verbs in v. 2a and v. 2b as indicatives and the verbs in v. 2c as imperatives: "When I would call, the God of my righteousness listened to me (εἰσήκουσέν μου). In affliction you gave me room (ἐπλάτυνάς μοι). Have compassion on me (οἰκτίρησόν με), and listen (εἰσάκουσον) to my prayer" (LXX, trans. NETS; cf. Peshitta).

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[Ind—Ind—Impv]: The verb in the first line should be vocalized as an indicative ("he answered..."), the verb in the second line should be interpreted as a past-tense indicative ("you gave room"), and the verbs in the third line should be vocalized as imperatives (see LXX).#dispreferred
 + <Parallelism>: The parallelism of the opening two lines of the verse suggests that ענני be interpreted and vocalized as an indicative, paralleling the morphologically unambiguous qatal form הִרְחַבְתָּ. #dispreferred
  + [Parallelism]: A. "When (בּ) I called," B. "the God of my righteousness answered me" / A. "In the distress" (בּ), B. "you gave me room." #dispreferred
 + <Ancient translations>: The Septuagint and the Peshitta vocalize the verb in the first line as an indicative (עָנָנִי), interpret the verb in the second line as an indicative, and vocalize the verbs in the third line as imperatives.#dispreferred
  + [LXX]: "When I would call, the God of my righteousness listened to me (εἰσήκουσέν μου). In affliction you gave me room (ἐπλάτυνάς μοι). Have compassion on me (οἰκτίρησόν με), and listen (εἰσάκουσον) to my prayer" (LXX, trans. NETS).#dispreferred
  + [Peshitta]: "When I cried out to you, you answered me (ܥܢܝܬܢܝ), O my God and defender of my righteousness. In my afflictions you brought relief to me (ܐܪܘܚܬ ܠܝ). Be compassionate (ܪܚܡ) toward me and hear (ܘܫܡܥ) my prayer" (Taylor 2020, 11).#dispreferred
 - <Incoherence>: The imperatives in v. 2c ("be merciful and hear my prayer!") create an expectation that the psalmist is about to articulate some request to YHWH, but the rest of the psalm does not contain any request (cf. Goldingay 2006, 170 :A:; Weiser 1959, 81 :C:).

Ind—Ind—Ind (preferred)

Some scholars propose vocalizing all of the verbs in v. 2 as indicatives. E.g., "When I called, the God of my righteousness answered me. In the distress, you gave me relief. He was merciful to me and heard my prayer." None of the modern translations consulted represent this view.

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[Ind—Ind—Ind]: The verbs in the first and third lines should be vocalized as indicatives ("he answered... he was merciful and heard"), and the verb in the second line should be interpreted as a past-tense indicative ("you gave room") (de Lagarde 1886, 30 :C:; Gunkel 1926, 15-16 :C:; Weiser 1959, 30 :C:; Michel 1960, 246 :M:).
 + <Parallelism>: The parallelism of the opening two lines of the verse suggests that ענני be interpreted and vocalized as an indicative, paralleling the morphologically unambiguous qatal form הִרְחַבְתָּ.
  + [Parallelism]: A. "When (בּ) I called," B. "the God of my righteousness answered me" / A. "In the distress" (בּ), B. "you gave me room."
 + <Coherence>: The rest of the psalm contains no request and does not presuppose any current distress (cf. Weiser 1959, 31 :C:). On the contrary, vv. 8–9 presuppose a situation in which YHWH has put joy in the psalmist's heart by giving the people an abundance of grain and new wine, and the psalmist can lie down and fall asleep in peace (Michel 1960, 246 :M:; cf. Goldingay 2006, 170 :A:).
  + [vv. 8–9]: "You put joy in my heart since the time their grain and their new wine increased. In peace, I can both lie down and fall asleep, because you alone, YHWH, make me dwell securely" (vv. 8–9).
 + <Ancient translations>: The Septuagint and the Peshitta vocalize the verb in the first line as an indicative (עָנָנִי).
  + [LXX]: "When I would call, the God of my righteousness listened to me (εἰσήκουσέν μου). In affliction you gave me room (ἐπλάτυνάς μοι). Have compassion on me (οἰκτίρησόν με), and listen (εἰσάκουσον) to my prayer" (LXX, trans. NETS).
  + [Peshitta]: "When I cried out to you, you answered me (ܥܢܝܬܢܝ), O my God and defender of my righteousness. In my afflictions you brought relief to me (ܐܪܘܚܬ ܠܝ). Be compassionate (ܪܚܡ) toward me and hear (ܘܫܡܥ) my prayer" (Taylor 2020, 11).
 - <Ancient attestation>: This view is not fully represented in any known ancient tradition. Even in the Septuagint, which vocalizes the verb in v. 2a as indicative, the verbs in v. 2c are imperatives. #dispreferred
  <_ <Consonantal text>: Although this view is not fully represented by any ancient vocalization tradition, it is fully consistent with the consonantal text that underlies the different vocalization traditions. The verbs in the first and third lines can be revocalized without any change to the consonantal text itself.
   + [Consonantal text]: E.g., עָנָנִי (cf. עָנָנִי in 1 Sam 28:15); חַנַּנִי (cf. חַנַּנִי in Gen 33:11); וְשָׁמַע (on the plausibility of mid-line waw + qatal \[instead of wayyiqtol\], see e.g., Ps 34:5—דָּרַשְׁתִּי אֶת־יְהוָ֣ה וְעָנָנִי).
 + <Genre>: Psalm 4 is predominantly a thanksgiving psalm, not a petition or lament psalm.
  + <Ps 67>: Psalm 4 resembles Psalm 67 in some striking ways, and Psalm 67 is clearly a thanksgiving psalm, a harvest celebration.
   + <Aaronic blessing>: Both Psalm 4 and Psalm 67 allude to the Aaronic blessing.
    + [Aaronic blessing]: אֱלֹהִ֗ים יְחָנֵּ֥נוּ וִֽיבָרְכֵ֑נוּ יָ֤אֵ֥ר פָּנָ֖יו אִתָּ֣נוּ סֶֽלָה (Ps 67:2; cf. Ps 4:2, 7, 9).
   + <Harvest>: Both Psalm 4 and Psalm 67 use agricultural terminology. Specifically, bot psalms have a past-tense reference to a successful harvest.
    + [Harvest]: "The earth has yielded its produce" (אֶרֶץ נָתְנָה יְבוּלָהּ) (Ps 67:7; cf. Ps 4:8).
   + <Nations>: In both Psalm 4 and Psalm 67, the central verses of the psalm are a call for the nations to worship YHWH and experience his blessing.
    + [Nations]: See Ps 67:3–6; cf. Ps 4:3–6.
   + <Superscriptions>: Both Psalm 4 and Psalm 67 have the same superscription, except for the last item in each superscription.
    + [Superscription]: "For the director, with stringed instruments, a psalm..." (Ps 4:1; Ps 67:1).

Conclusion (C)

The traditional vocalization of the verbs in v. 2, represented by the MT, is problematic for two reasons. In the first place, it creates a jarring shift from imperative (v. 2a) to qatal (v. 2b) back to imperative (v. 2c). Various attempts have been made to account for the shift, including (1) interpreting v. 2b as a relative clause, (2) interpreting the qatal verb in v. 2b as future tense, (3) interpreting the qatal verb in v. 2b as a precative. But none of these options is persuasive. Secondly—and this is the more important issue with the MT vocalization—the imperatives do not make sense in light of the rest of the psalm. Vocalizing the verbs in v. 2 as imperatives ("answer... be merciful and hear my prayer!") creates an expectation that the psalmist is about to articulate some request to YHWH, but the rest of the psalm does not contain any request, nor does it presuppose any current distress. On the contrary, vv. 8–9 presuppose a situation in which YHWH has put joy in the psalmist's heart by giving the people an abundance of grain and new wine, so that the psalmist can lie down and fall asleep in peace. In this context, it makes the most sense to understand all of the verbs in v. 2 as past-tense indicatives. Indeed, if we look at the bare consonantal text, the only morphologically unambiguous form in v. 2 is הרחבת, clearly a qatal form, and the consonants of the other verb forms readily admit vocalization as qatal verbs. The revocalization of these verbs results in a reading that does justice to the expected past-tense verbal semantics of הרחבת, fits best within the psalm as a whole, and makes for a fitting parallel between v. 2a and v. 2b—"When (בּ) I called out, the God of my righteousness answered me (qatal) // "In (בּ) the distress, you gave me relief (qatal)."

The strongest objection to our interpretation is that it lacks ancient precedent. The Septuagint, which vocalizes the verb in v. 2a as an indicative qatal verb and the verbs in v. 2c as imperatives (see also Peshitta), provides only partial support for this view. Despite the lack of ancient precedent and the clear antiquity of the MT vocalization (cf. Aquila, Symmachus, Quinta, Jerome), the internal evidence of the psalm itself strongly favors vocalizing the consonantal text of v. 2 such that all the verbs are indicative qatals.

Research

Translations

Ancient

• LXX: Ἐν τῷ ἐπικαλεῖσθαί με εἰσήκουσέν μου ὁ θεὸς τῆς δικαιοσύνης μου, ἐν θλίψει ἐπλάτυνάς μοι, οἰκτίρησόν με καὶ εἰσάκουσον τῆς προσευχῆς μου.
  • "When I would call, the God of my righteousness listened to me. In affliction you gave me room. Have compassion on me, and listen to my prayer."
• Aquila: ...ἐπάκουσόν μου... δώρησαί μοι...
  • "...listen to me... give (as a gift) to me..."
• Symmachus: ...ἐπάκουσόν μου...
  • "... Listen to me..."
• Quinta: ...ἐπάκουσόν μου...
  • "...Listen to me..."
• Jerome (Hebr.): Invocante me exaudi me Deus iustitae meae / in tribulatione dilatasti mihi / miserere mei et exaudi orationem meam.
  • "When I call out, listen to me, God of my righteousness / in trouble, you made it broad for me / have mercy on me and listen to my prayer."
• Peshitta: ܟܕ ܩܪܝܬܟ ܥܢܝܬܢܝ܂ ܐܠܗܝ ܘܦܪܘܩܐ ܕܙܕܝܩܘܬܝ܂ ܒܐ̈ܘܠܨܢܝ ܐܪܘܚܬ ܠܝ܂ ܪܚܡ ܥܠܝ ܘܫܡܥ ܨܠܘܬܝ܂
  • "When I cried out to you, you answered me, O my God and defender of my righteousness. In my afflictions you brought relief to me. Be compassionate toward me and hear my prayer."
• Targum: בעידן צלותי קבל מיני אלוה צדקותי בעידן עקתא אפתיתא לי חוס עלי וקבל צלותי׃
  • "In the time of my prayer accept (it) from me, O God of my righteousness; in the time of distress, widen my space, have pity on me and accept my prayer."

Modern

Impv—Ind—Impv

• Answer me when I call, O God of my righteousness! You have given me relief when I was in distress. Be gracious to me and hear my prayer! (ESV)
• Answer me when I call, O God of my right! You gave me room when I was in distress. Be gracious to me, and hear my prayer. (NRSV)
• You are my God and protector. Please answer my prayer. I was in terrible distress, but you set me free. Now have pity and listen as I pray. (CEV)
• Answer me when I pray, O God, my defender! When I was in trouble, you helped me. Be kind to me now and hear my prayer. (GNT)
• Answer me when I cal, O God, maintainer of my right, I was hard pressed, and thou didst set me at large; be gracious to me now and hear my prayer. (NEB)
• Answer me when I call, God, the upholder of my right! When I was hard pressed you set me free; be gracious to me and hear my prayer. (REB)
• Answer me when I call, O God, my vindicator! You freed me from distress; have mercy on me and hear my prayer. (NJPS)
• When I call, answer me, God, upholder of my right. In my distress you have set me at large; take pity on me and hear my prayer! (NJB)
• Antworte mir, mein Gott, wenn ich zu dir rufe! Du bist es doch, der mich verteidigt und für Gerechtigkeit sorgt! Als ich in meiner Not nicht mehr weiterwusste, hast du mir den rettenden Ausweg gezeigt. Erweise mir auch jetzt deine Gnade und höre mein Gebet! (HFA)
• Wenn ich zu dir rufe, mein Gott, so antworte mir, du bist der Gott, der für mein Recht eintritt. Aus großer Bedrängnis hast du mir schon herausgeholfen und mir weiten Raum verschafft, sei mir auch jetzt gnädig und erhöre mein Gebet! (NGÜ)
• Wenn ich rufe, antworte mir, Gott meiner Gerechtigkeit! In Bedrängnis hast du mir Raum gemacht; sei mir gnädig und höre mein Gebet! (ELB)
• Wenn ich rufe, gib mir Antwort, Gott meiner Gerechtigkeit! Du hast mir weiten Raum geschaffen in meiner Bedrängnis. Sei mir gnädig und hör auf mein Flehen! (EÜ)
• Antworte mir, wenn ich rufe! Mein Gott, du hältst doch zu mir! Als ich vor Enge kaum noch atmen konnte, hast du mich in die Freiheit geführt. Darum hab auch jetzt Erbarmen mit mir, hör mich, wenn ich zu dir schreie, höre auf mein Gebet! (GNU)
• Erhöre mich, wenn ich rufe, Gott meiner Gerechtigkeit. In der Bedrängnis hast du mir Raum geschaffen. Sei mir gnädig und höre mein Gebet. (ZÜR)
• Quand j'appelle, réponds-moi, Dieu, ma justice! Dans la détresse tu m'as soulagé; par pitié, écoute ma prière. (TOB)
• Quand je crie, réponds-moi, Dieu de ma justice ! Dans la détresse, tu me mets au large. Fais-moi grâce, entends ma prière ! (NBS)
• Quand je crie, réponds-moi, Dieu de ma justice ! Dans la détresse, tu me mets à l'aise. Fais-moi grâce, écoute ma prière ! (NVS78P)
• Quand je t’appelle à l’aide, ╵Dieu qui me rends justice, ╵oh, réponds-moi ! Lorsque je suis dans la détresse, ╵tu me délivres : Dieu, fais-moi grâce, ╵et entends ma prière !
• Réponds-moi quand je t’appelle, ô Dieu, toi qui me fais justice. Quand j’étais écrasé, tu m’as remis debout. Je t’en prie, écoute ma prière. (PDV2017)
• Quand je t'appelle au secours, mon Dieu, réponds-moi, toi qui rétablis mon droit. Quand j'étais dans la détresse, tu m'as rendu la liberté. Accorde ta grâce, écoute ma prière ! (NFC)
• Quand je crie, réponds-moi, Dieu de ma justice! Quand j'étais dans la détresse, tu m'as mis au large. Aie pitié de moi, écoute ma prière! (S21)
• ¡Respóndeme cuando clamo, Dios, justicia mía! Cuando estaba en angustia, tú me diste alivio. Ten misericordia de mí y oye mi oración. (RVR95)

v. 2b as indicative relative clause

• Erhöre mich, wenn ich rufe, Gott meiner Gerechtigkeit, der du mich tröstest in Angst; sei mir gnädig und erhöre mein Gebet! (LUT)
• Dios y defensor mío, ¡contéstame cuando te llame! Tú, que en mi angustia me diste alivio, ¡ten compasión de mí y escucha mi oración! (DHH94I)
• ¡Oh Elohim de mi justicia, respóndeme en mi clamor! Tú, que en la estrechez me diste holgura, Ten misericordia de mí y escucha mi oración. (BTX4)

v. 2b as future tense indicative

• I call out, answer me, O God who vindicates me! Though I am hemmed in, you will lead me into a wide, open place. Have mercy on me and respond to my prayer! (NET)

Impv—Impv—Impv

• Answer me when I call to you, my righteous God. Give me relief from my distress; have mercy on me and hear my prayer. (NIV)
• Answer me when I call to you, O God who declares me innocent. Free me from my troubles. Have mercy on me and hear my prayer. (NLT)
• Answer me when I cry out, my righteous God! Set me free from my troubles! Have mercy on me! Listen to my prayer! (CEB)
• Responde a mi clamor, Dios de mi justicia. Dame alivio cuando esté angustiado, apiádate de mí y escucha mi oración. (NVI)

Secondary Literature

Baethgen, Friedrich. 1904. Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Buttenwieser, Moses. 1938. The Psalms: Chronologically Treated with a New Translation. University of Chicago Press.

Cook, John A. 2024. The Biblical Hebrew Verb: A Linguistic Introduction. Learning Biblical Hebrew. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Duhm, Bernhard. 1899. Die Psalmen. Vol. XIV. Kurzer Handkommentar zum Alten Testament. Leipzig und Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Fassberg, Steven. 2019. An Introduction to the Syntax of Biblical Hebrew. Jerusalem: The Bialik Institute.

Goldingay, John. 2006. “Psalm 4: Ambiguity and Resolution.” Tyndale Bulletin 57 (2): 161–72.

Gunkel, Hermann. 1926. Die Psalmen. 4th ed. Göttinger Handkommentar Zum Alten Testament 2. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, and Erich Zenger. 1993. Die Psalmen I: Psalm 1–50. Neue Echter Bibel. Würzburg: Echter.

Hupfeld, Hermann. 1855. Die Psalmen. Vol. 1. Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes.

Lagarde, Paul de. 1886. “Novae Psalterii Graeci Editionis Specimen.” In Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. Göttingen: in der Dieterischen Buchhandlung.

Michel, Diethelm. 1960. Tempora und Satzstellung in den Psalmen. Bonn: H. Bouvier.

Miller-Naudé, Cynthia L, and Jacobus A Naudé. 2024. “Pronominal Reference and Agreement in Vocative Expressions in Biblical Hebrew.” JNSL 50:158–60.

Poole, Matthew. 1678. Synopsis criticorum aliorumque sacrae scripturae. Vol. 2: a Jobi ad Canticum Canticorum.

Radak. Radak on Psalms.

Robar, Elizabeth. 2020. “Ethan C. Jones (Ed.), The Unfolding of Your Words Gives Light: Studies on Biblical Hebrew in Honor of George L. Klein.” Journal of Semitic Studies 65 (2): 633–39.

Weiser, Artur. 1959. Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Zenger, Erich. 1990. “‘Gib mir Antwort, Gott meiner Gerechtigkeit’ (Ps 4,2): Zur Theologie des 4. Psalms.” In Die alttestamentliche Botschaft als Wegweisung, edited by Josef Zmijewski, 377–403. FS H. Reinelt: Stuttgart.

References

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